Tammyashperkins

Overview

  • Founded Date May 30, 1913
  • Sectors Sales & Marketing
  • Posted Jobs 0
  • Viewed 1
Bottom Promo

Company Description

Ralston, Hemmendinger & Reilly (2025), p

Information innovation (IT) is a set of associated fields that encompass computer system systems, software, programs languages, data and info processing, and storage. [1] IT forms part of info and interactions innovation (ICT). [2] An infotech system (IT system) is typically an information system, a communications system, or, more particularly speaking, a computer system – consisting of all hardware, software, and peripheral equipment – run by a minimal group of IT users, and an IT task normally refers to the commissioning and execution of an IT system. [3] IT systems play an essential function in facilitating effective data management, boosting interaction networks, and supporting organizational processes across numerous markets. Successful IT jobs need careful preparation and ongoing upkeep to guarantee optimal functionality and positioning with organizational objectives. [4]

Although human beings have been keeping, retrieving, manipulating, analysing and communicating information considering that the earliest writing systems were established, [5] the term information innovation in its contemporary sense first appeared in a 1958 article published in the Harvard Business Review; authors Harold J. Leavitt and Thomas L. Whisler commented that “the new technology does not yet have a single established name. We shall call it infotech (IT).” [6] Their meaning consists of three classifications: methods for processing, the application of analytical and mathematical approaches to decision-making, and the simulation of higher-order analyzing computer programs. [6]

The term is commonly utilized as a synonym for computer systems and computer networks, however it also encompasses other info circulation technologies such as television and telephones. Several product and services within an economy are related to infotech, including computer system hardware, software application, electronic devices, semiconductors, web, telecom equipment, and e-commerce. [7] [a]

Based on the storage and processing technologies utilized, it is possible to differentiate four unique phases of IT development: pre-mechanical (3000 BC – 1450 AD), mechanical (1450 – 1840), electromechanical (1840 – 1940), and electronic (1940 to present). [5]

Information technology is a branch of computer science, defined as the research study of procedures, structures, and the processing of various types of information. As this field continues to develop globally, its priority and value have actually grown, resulting in the intro of computer science-related courses in K-12 education.

Ideas of computer system science were first pointed out before the 1950s under the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Harvard University, where they had talked about and began considering computer system circuits and numerical calculations. As time went on, the field of infotech and computer technology became more intricate and was able to deal with the processing of more information. Scholarly articles started to be published from various companies. [9]

During the early computing, Alan Turing, J. Presper Eckert, and John Mauchly were considered a few of the significant pioneers of computer innovation in the mid-1900s. Providing such credit for their advancements, many of their efforts were focused on designing the first digital computer. Along with that, topics such as synthetic intelligence started to be raised as Turing was starting to question such innovation of the time duration. [10]

Devices have been utilized to help computation for thousands of years, most likely initially in the form of a tally stick. [11] The Antikythera system, dating from about the start of the very first century BC, is normally considered the earliest recognized mechanical analog computer, and the earliest known tailored mechanism. [12] Comparable geared gadgets did not emerge in Europe up until the 16th century, and it was not till 1645 that the first mechanical calculator capable of carrying out the 4 basic arithmetical operations was established. [13]

Electronic computers, using either communicates or valves, began to appear in the early 1940s. The electromechanical Zuse Z3, finished in 1941, was the world’s first programmable computer system, and by contemporary standards among the first makers that could be considered a complete computing maker. During the Second World War, Colossus developed the first electronic digital computer to decrypt German messages. Although it was programmable, it was not general-purpose, being created to carry out only a single task. It also lacked the ability to store its program in memory; programs was brought out using plugs and switches to change the internal circuitry. [14] The first recognizably contemporary electronic digital stored-program computer system was the Manchester Baby, which ran its very first program on 21 June 1948. [15]

The advancement of transistors in the late 1940s at Bell Laboratories allowed a new generation of computer systems to be developed with significantly consumption. The first commercially offered stored-program computer system, the Ferranti Mark I, consisted of 4050 valves and had a power consumption of 25 kilowatts. By contrast, the first transistorized computer established at the University of Manchester and functional by November 1953, consumed only 150 watts in its last version. [16]

Several other developments in semiconductor technology consist of the integrated circuit (IC) developed by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959, silicon dioxide surface area passivation by Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick in 1955, [17] the very first planar silicon dioxide transistors by Frosch and Derick in 1957, [18] the MOSFET demonstration by a Bell Labs team. [19] [20] [21] [22] the planar process by Jean Hoerni in 1959, [23] [24] [25] and the microprocessor developed by Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin, Masatoshi Shima, and Stanley Mazor at Intel in 1971. These crucial innovations caused the development of the desktop computer (PC) in the 1970s, and the emergence of information and communications innovation (ICT). [26]

By 1984, according to the National Westminster Bank Quarterly Review, the term infotech had actually been redefined as “The development of cable tv was enabled by the convergence of telecommunications and calculating technology (… typically understood in Britain as infotech).” We then begin to see the appearance of the term in 1990 contained within files for the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). [27]

Innovations in technology have currently changed the world by the twenty-first century as individuals were able to gain access to various online services. This has changed the labor force considerably as thirty percent of U.S. employees were already in careers in this occupation. 136.9 million people were personally linked to the Internet, which was equivalent to 51 million families. [28] Along with the Internet, new kinds of technology were also being presented around the world, which has actually enhanced performance and made things simpler around the world.

Along with technology reinventing society, countless procedures might be carried out in seconds. Innovations in communication were also vital as individuals started to rely on the computer to interact through telephone lines and cable television. The introduction of the email was thought about advanced as “business in one part of the world might communicate by email with suppliers and purchasers in another part of the world …” [29]

Not just personally, computers and innovation have actually likewise revolutionized the marketing industry, leading to more purchasers of their products. In 2002, Americans went beyond $28 billion in products simply online alone while e-commerce a decade later on led to $289 billion in sales. [29] And as computers are quickly ending up being more advanced every day, they are becoming more utilized as individuals are ending up being more reliant on them throughout the twenty-first century.

Data processing

Storage

Early electronic computers such as Colossus used punched tape, a long strip of paper on which information was represented by a series of holes, an innovation now outdated. [30] Electronic information storage, which is used in contemporary computers, dates from The second world war, when a kind of delay-line memory was developed to eliminate the mess from radar signals, the first useful application of which was the mercury hold-up line. [31] The first random-access digital storage device was the Williams tube, which was based on a standard cathode ray tube. [32] However, the details saved in it and delay-line memory was volatile in the reality that it needed to be continuously refreshed, and therefore was lost when power was gotten rid of. The earliest type of non-volatile computer storage was the magnetic drum, developed in 1932 [33] and utilized in the Ferranti Mark 1, the world’s very first commercially readily available general-purpose electronic computer. [34]

IBM presented the first disk drive in 1956, as a part of their 305 RAMAC computer system. [35]:6 Most digital information today is still saved magnetically on hard drives, or optically on media such as CD-ROMs. [36]:4 -5 Until 2002 most info was kept on analog devices, but that year digital storage capability surpassed analog for the very first time. As of 2007 [upgrade], almost 94% of the data stored worldwide was held digitally: [37] 52% on hard disks, 28% on optical gadgets, and 11% on digital magnetic tape. It has actually been approximated that the worldwide capability to keep information on electronic gadgets grew from less than 3 exabytes in 1986 to 295 exabytes in 2007, [38] doubling roughly every 3 years. [39]

Databases

Database Management Systems (DMS) emerged in the 1960s to attend to the problem of storing and obtaining big quantities of information accurately and quickly. An early such system was IBM’s Information Management System (IMS), [40] which is still widely deployed more than 50 years later. [41] IMS stores data hierarchically, [40] but in the 1970s Ted Codd proposed an alternative relational storage design based upon set theory and predicate logic and the familiar concepts of tables, rows, and columns. In 1981, the first commercially readily available relational database management system (RDBMS) was released by Oracle. [42]

All DMS consist of parts, they permit the information they keep to be accessed concurrently by numerous users while maintaining its integrity. [43] All databases are typical in one point that the structure of the data they include is defined and saved separately from the information itself, in a database schema. [40]

In the last few years, the extensible markup language (XML) has actually ended up being a popular format for data representation. Although XML data can be kept in typical file systems, it is typically held in relational databases to benefit from their “robust application confirmed by years of both theoretical and practical effort.” [44] As an evolution of the Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), XML’s text-based structure uses the advantage of being both machine- and human-readable. [45]

Transmission

Data transmission has 3 elements: transmission, propagation, and reception. [46] It can be broadly categorized as broadcasting, in which info is sent unidirectionally downstream, or telecoms, with bidirectional upstream and downstream channels. [38]

XML has been increasingly employed as a means of data interchange since the early 2000s, [47] particularly for machine-oriented interactions such as those involved in web-oriented protocols such as SOAP, [45] explaining “data-in-transit rather than … data-at-rest”. [47]

Manipulation

Hilbert and Lopez determine the exponential pace of technological modification (a sort of Moore’s law): devices’ application-specific capability to calculate details per capita approximately doubled every 14 months between 1986 and 2007; the per capita capacity of the world’s general-purpose computers doubled every 18 months throughout the exact same 20 years; the global telecommunication capability per capita doubled every 34 months; the world’s storage capability per capita needed roughly 40 months to double (every 3 years); and per capita broadcast details has actually doubled every 12.3 years. [38]

Massive quantities of information are saved around the world every day, however unless it can be evaluated and provided efficiently it essentially lives in what have actually been called data burial places: “data archives that are rarely checked out”. [48] To attend to that concern, the field of information mining – “the process of discovering intriguing patterns and understanding from big quantities of data” [49] – emerged in the late 1980s. [50]

Email

The technology and services it attends to sending and getting electronic messages (called “letters” or “electronic letters”) over a dispersed (including worldwide) computer network. In regards to the structure of elements and the principle of operation, e-mail practically duplicates the system of routine (paper) mail, borrowing both terms (mail, letter, envelope, attachment, box, delivery, and others) and characteristic functions – ease of usage, message transmission hold-ups, enough dependability and at the same time no warranty of delivery. The benefits of email are: easily perceived and remembered by an individual addresses of the type user_name@domain_name (for instance, somebody@example.com); the ability to transfer both plain text and formatted, in addition to arbitrary files; independence of servers (in the basic case, they deal with each other straight); sufficiently high dependability of message delivery; ease of use by humans and programs.

Disadvantages of email: the presence of such a phenomenon as spam (massive marketing and viral mailings); the theoretical impossibility of ensured delivery of a particular letter; possible hold-ups in message shipment (as much as several days); limits on the size of one message and on the overall size of messages in the mail box (individual for users).

Search system

A software and hardware complex with a web interface that offers the ability to look for information on the Internet. An online search engine typically indicates a website that hosts the interface (front-end) of the system. The software application part of a search engine is a search engine (search engine) – a set of programs that provides the functionality of an online search engine and is usually a trade secret of the online search engine developer business. Most online search engine look for info on World Wide Web sites, however there are likewise systems that can search for files on FTP servers, products in online shops, and information on Usenet newsgroups. Improving search is among the concerns of the contemporary Internet (see the Deep Web article about the primary problems in the work of search engines).

Commercial effects

Companies in the infotech field are frequently discussed as a group as the “tech sector” or the “tech market.” [51] [52] [53] These titles can be deceiving at times and must not be mistaken for “tech business;” which are generally large scale, for-profit corporations that offer customer innovation and software. It is likewise worth keeping in mind that from an organization point of view, Infotech departments are a “cost center” most of the time. An expense center is a department or personnel which sustains expenditures, or “expenses”, within a business rather than generating revenues or income streams. Modern businesses rely heavily on innovation for their daily operations, so the expenses delegated to cover innovation that helps with service in a more efficient way are typically viewed as “just the expense of working.” IT departments are assigned funds by senior management and should try to achieve the preferred deliverables while staying within that spending plan. Government and the private sector might have various funding mechanisms, however the principles are more-or-less the very same. This is a frequently neglected factor for the rapid interest in automation and expert system, however the continuous pressure to do more with less is opening the door for automation to take control of at least some minor operations in large business.

Many business now have IT departments for managing the computers, networks, and other technical locations of their businesses. Companies have also sought to integrate IT with service results and decision-making through a BizOps or company operations department. [54]

In a service context, the Information Technology Association of America has specified info innovation as “the research study, style, development, application, application, assistance, or management of computer-based details systems”. [55] [page needed] The responsibilities of those operating in the field include network administration, software advancement and installation, and the planning and management of a company’s technology life cycle, by which hardware and software are preserved, upgraded, and changed.

Information services

Information services is a term somewhat loosely used to a variety of IT-related services provided by business companies, [56] [57] [58] along with data brokers.

-.
U.S. Employment circulation of computer system systems style and related services, 2011 [59]

-.
U.S. Employment in the computer systems and design associated services industry, in thousands, 1990-2011 [59]

-.
U.S. Occupational development and wages in computer system systems design and related services, 2010-2020 [59]

-.
U.S. projected percent modification in work in picked professions in computer system systems style and related services, 2010-2020 [59]

-.
U.S. forecasted average yearly percent change in output and employment in picked industries, 2010-2020 [59]

Ethics

The field of information principles was established by mathematician Norbert Wiener in the 1940s. [60]:9 Some of the ethical problems related to the usage of infotech consist of: [61]:20 -21

– Breaches of copyright by those downloading files kept without the authorization of the copyright holders.
– Employers monitoring their employees’ e-mails and other Internet use.
Unsolicited e-mails.
Hackers accessing online databases.
– Website setting up cookies or spyware to keep an eye on a user’s online activities, which might be used by information brokers.

IT tasks

Research suggests that IT jobs in company and public administration can easily end up being significant in scale. Work conducted by McKinsey in cooperation with the University of Oxford suggested that half of all large-scale IT jobs (those with initial cost estimates of $15 million or more) frequently stopped working to keep expenses within their initial budget plans or to complete on time. [62]

Information and interactions technology (ICT).
IT infrastructure.
Outline of information innovation.
Knowledge society.

Notes

^ On the later on more broad application of the term IT, Keary remarks: “In its initial application ‘info innovation’ was appropriate to explain the merging of innovations with application in the vast field of data storage, retrieval, processing, and dissemination. This useful conceptual term has actually considering that been converted to what professes to be of fantastic use, however without the reinforcement of definition … the term IT lacks compound when used to the name of any function, discipline, or position.” [8] References

Citations

^ Cosker, Glynn (2023 ), “What Is Information Technology? A Novice’s Guide to the World of IT”, Technology Blog, Rasmussen University.
^ “Computer Technology Definition”. Law Insider. Retrieved 11 July 2022. ^ Forbes Technology Council, 16 Key Steps To Successful IT Project Management, published 10 September 2020, accessed 23 June 2023
^ Hindarto, Djarot (30 August 2023). “The Management of Projects is Improved Through Enterprise Architecture on Project Management Application Systems”. International Journal Software Engineering and Computer Science (IJSECS). 3 (2 ): 151-161. doi:10.35870/ ijsecs.v3i2.1512. ISSN 2776-3242.
^ a b Butler, Jeremy G., A History of Information Technology and Systems, University of Arizona, archived from the original on 5 August 2012, retrieved 2 August 2012
^ a b Leavitt, Harold J.; Whisler, Thomas L. (1958 ), “Management in the 1980s”, Harvard Business Review, 11.
^ Chandler, Daniel; Munday, Rod (10 February 2011), “Infotech”, A Dictionary of Media and Communication (initially ed.), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199568758, retrieved 1 August 2012, Commonly a synonym for computer systems and computer networks however more broadly designating any technology that is used to produce, shop, process, and/or distribute details digitally, consisting of tv and telephone.
^ Ralston, Hemmendinger & Reilly (2000 ), p. 869.
^ Slotten, Hugh Richard (1 January 2014). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of American Science, Medicine, and Technology. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ acref/9780199766666.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-976666-6.
^ Henderson, H. (2017 ). computer technology. In H. Henderson, Facts on File science library: Encyclopedia of computer technology and technology. (3rd ed.). [Online] New York City: Facts On File.
^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1981 ), “Decipherment of the earliest tablets”, Science, 211 (4479 ): 283-285, Bibcode:1981 Sci … 211..283 S, doi:10.1126/ science.211.4479.283, ISSN 0036-8075, PMID 17748027.
^ Wright (2012 ), p. 279.
^ Chaudhuri (2004 ), p. 3.
^ Lavington (1980 ), p. 11.
^ Enticknap, Nicholas (Summer 1998), “Computing’s Golden Jubilee”, Resurrection (20 ), ISSN 0958-7403, archived from the original on 9 January 2012, obtained 19 April 2008.
^ Cooke-Yarborough, E. H. (June 1998), “Some early transistor applications in the UK”, Engineering Science & Education Journal, 7 (3 ): 100-106, doi:10.1049/ esej:19980301 (non-active 7 December 2024), ISSN 0963-7346 citation: CS1 maint: DOI inactive since December 2024 (link).
^ US2802760A, Lincoln, Derick & Frosch, Carl J., “Oxidation of semiconductive surface areas for regulated diffusion”, provided 1957-08-13
^ Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L (1957 ). “Surface Protection and Selective Masking throughout Diffusion in Silicon”. Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 104 (9 ): 547. doi:10.1149/ 1.2428650.
^ KAHNG, D. (1961 ). “Silicon-Silicon Dioxide Surface Device”. Technical Memorandum of Bell Laboratories: 583-596. doi:10.1142/ 9789814503464_0076. ISBN 978-981-02-0209-5.
^ Lojek, Bo (2007 ). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. p. 321. ISBN 978-3-540-34258-8.
^ Ligenza, J.R.; Spitzer, W.G. (1960 ). “The systems for silicon oxidation in steam and oxygen”. Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids. 14: 131-136. Bibcode:1960 JPCS … 14..131 L. doi:10.1016/ 0022-3697( 60 )90219-5.
^ Lojek, Bo (2007 ). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 120. ISBN 9783540342588.
^ Lojek, Bo (2007 ). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 120 & 321-323. ISBN 9783540342588.
^ Bassett, Ross Knox (2007 ). To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 46. ISBN 9780801886393.
^ US 3025589 Hoerni, J. A.: “Method of Manufacturing Semiconductor Devices” submitted May 1, 1959
^ “Advanced information on the Nobel Prize in Physics 2000” (PDF). Nobel Prize. June 2018. Archived (PDF) from the initial on 17 August 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
^ Information technology. (2003 ). In E.D. Reilly, A. Ralston & D. Hemmendinger (Eds.), Encyclopedia of computer technology. (fourth ed.).
^ Stewart, C.M. (2018 ). Computers. In S. Bronner (Ed.), Encyclopedia of American research studies. [Online] Johns Hopkins University Press.
^ a b Northrup, C.C. (2013 ). Computers. In C. Clark Northrup (Ed.), Encyclopedia of world trade: from ancient times to today. [Online] London: Routledge.
^ Alavudeen & Venkateshwaran (2010 ), p. 178.
^ Lavington (1998 ), p. 1.
^ “Early computer systems at Manchester University”, Resurrection, 1 (4 ), Summer 1992, ISSN 0958-7403, archived from the initial on 28 August 2017, recovered 19 April 2008.
^ Universität Klagenfurt (ed.), “Magnetic drum”, Virtual Exhibitions in Informatics, archived from the original on 21 June 2006, recovered 21 August 2011.
^ The Manchester Mark 1, University of Manchester, archived from the initial on 21 November 2008, retrieved 24 January 2009.
^ Khurshudov, Andrei (2001 ), The Essential Guide to Computer Data Storage: From Floppy to DVD, Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-130-92739-2.
^ Wang, Shan X.; Taratorin, Aleksandr Markovich (1999 ), Magnetic Information Storage Technology, Academic Press, ISBN 978-0-12-734570-3.
^ Wu, Suzanne, “Just How Much Information Exists on the planet?”, USC News, University of Southern California, retrieved 10 September 2013.
^ a b c Hilbert, Martin; López, Priscila (1 April 2011), “The World’s Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information”, Science, 332 (6025 ): 60-65, Bibcode:2011 Sci … 332 … 60H, doi:10.1126/ science.1200970, PMID 21310967, S2CID 206531385.
^ “Americas occasions – Video animation on The World’s Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information from 1986 to 2010”. The Economist. Archived from the original on 18 January 2012.
^ a b c Ward & Dafoulas (2006 ), p. 2.
^ Olofson, Carl W. (October 2009), A Platform for Enterprise Data Services (PDF), IDC, archived from the original (PDF) on 25 December 2013, obtained 7 August 2012.
^ Ward & Dafoulas (2006 ), p. 3.
^ Silberschatz, Abraham (2010 ). Database System Concepts. McGraw-Hill College. ISBN 978-0-07-741800-7.
^ Pardede (2009 ), p. 2.
^ a b Pardede (2009 ), p. 4.
^ Weik (2000 ), p. 361.
^ a b Pardede (2009 ), p. xiii.
^ Han, Kamber & Pei (2011 ), p. 5.
^ Han, Kamber & Pei (2011 ), p. 8.
^ Han, Kamber & Pei (2011 ), p. xxiii.
^ “Technology Sector Snapshot”. The New York Times. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
^ “Our programs, projects and collaborations”. TechUK. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
^ “Cyberstates 2016”. CompTIA. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
^ “Manifesto Hatched to Close Gap Between Business and IT”. TechNewsWorld. 22 October 2020. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
^ Proctor, K. Scott (2011 ), Optimizing and Assessing Infotech: Improving Business Project Execution, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1-118-10263-3.
^ “Top Information Services companies”. VentureRadar. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
^ “Follow Information Services on Index.co”. Index.co. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
^ Publishing, Value Line. “Industry Overview: Information Services”. Value Line. Archived from the initial on 20 June 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
^ a b c d e Lauren Csorny (9 April 2013). “U.S. Careers in the growing field of details innovation services”. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
^ Bynum, Terrell Ward (2008 ), “Norbert Wiener and the Rise of Information Ethics”, in van den Hoven, Jeroen; Weckert, John (eds.), Information Technology and Moral Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-85549-5.
^ Reynolds, George (2009 ), Ethics in Information Technology, Cengage Learning, ISBN 978-0-538-74622-9.
^ Bloch, M., Blumberg, S. and Laartz, J., Delivering massive IT tasks on time, on budget, and on worth, published 1 October 2012, accessed 23 June 2023
Bibliography

Alavudeen, A.; Venkateshwaran, N. (2010 ), Computer Integrated Manufacturing, PHI Learning, ISBN 978-81-203-3345-1
Chaudhuri, P. Pal (2004 ), Computer Organization and Design, PHI Learning, ISBN 978-81-203-1254-8
Han, Jiawei; Kamber, Micheline; Pei, Jian (2011 ), Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques (3rd ed.), Morgan Kaufmann, ISBN 978-0-12-381479-1
Lavington, Simon (1980 ), Early British Computers, Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0-7190-0810-8
Lavington, Simon (1998 ), A History of Manchester Computers (2nd ed.), The British Computer Society, ISBN 978-1-902505-01-5
Pardede, Eric (2009 ), Open and Novel Issues in XML Database Applications, Information Science Reference, ISBN 978-1-60566-308-1
Ralston, Anthony; Hemmendinger, David; Reilly, Edwin D., eds. (2000 ), Encyclopedia of Computer Science (fourth ed.), Nature Publishing Group, ISBN 978-1-56159-248-7
van der Aalst, Wil M. P. (2011 ), Process Mining: Discovery, Conformance and Enhancement of Business Processes, Springer, ISBN 978-3-642-19344-6
Ward, Patricia; Dafoulas, George S. (2006 ), Database Management Systems, Cengage Learning EMEA, ISBN 978-1-84480-452-8
Weik, Martin (2000 ), Computer Science and Communications Dictionary, vol. 2, Springer, ISBN 978-0-7923-8425-0
Wright, Michael T. (2012 ), “The Front Dial of the Antikythera Mechanism”, in Koetsier, Teun; Ceccarelli, Marco (eds.), Explorations in the History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings of HMM2012, Springer, pp. 279-292, ISBN 978-94-007-4131-7

Further reading

Allen, T.; Morton, M. S. Morton, eds. (1994 ), Information Technology and the Corporation of the 1990s, Oxford University Press.
– Gitta, Cosmas and South, David (2011 ). Southern Innovator Magazine Issue 1: Mobile Phones and Infotech: United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation. ISSN 2222-9280.
Gleick, James (2011 ). The Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood. New York City: Pantheon Books.
Price, Wilson T. (1981 ), Introduction to Computer Data Processing, Holt-Saunders International Editions, ISBN 978-4-8337-0012-2.
– Shelly, Gary, Cashman, Thomas, Vermaat, Misty, and Walker, Tim. (1999 ). Discovering Computers 2000: Concepts for a Connected World. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Course Technology.
– Webster, Frank, and Robins, Kevin. (1986 ). Information Technology – A Luddite Analysis. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Bottom Promo
Bottom Promo
Top Promo